Analysis of Windows Operating System and Microsoft

Analysis of Windows Operating System and Microsoft What is Windows? Windows is a personal computer operating system from Microsoft that, together with some commonly used business applications such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Word and Excel, has become a de facto â€Å"standard† for individual users in most corporations as well as in most homes. It provides a graphical user interface (GUI), virtual memory management, multitasking, and support for many peripheral devices. According to OneStat.com, as of August, 2006, Windows as a whole dominates the personal computer world, running on about 97% of the operating system market share, with XP accounting for about 87% of that. In comparison Mac OS has about 2% and Linux (with all distributions) about .36% The reason why this is so is mainly because Windows is much more user friendly and everything comes pre-packaged so user just have to run the application and follow instructions for it to install. There are many versions of Windows Operating System available namely: Windows 286 W indows 386 Windows 3.0 and 3.11 Windows 95 Windows 98 Windows NT Windows 2000 Windows CE for use in small mobile computers Windows Me Windows XP Windows Vista Windows 7 Among all those versions, Windows XP is the most popular one and it is used by 61.9 percent of Internet users, according to data from Net Applications, followed by Windows 7 which has 14.46 percent of users and Vista -14.34 percent. A Brief Story On Windows Windows mainly concentrated on providing an operating system which was user-friendly, stable and less prone to crashes when they were implementing earlier versions. Now, even though XP is generally referred to being stable and efficient compared to other copies of Windows, it is still critised for being overly susceptible to security risks. Therefore the successor of XP- Vista, released in January of 2007 was designed in such a way so as it provides more security. The transition time between Vista and XP is the longest one between versions of windows. Vulnerabilities Of Windows What is vulnerability? – â€Å"It is a weakness that makes a threat possible. â€Å" These vulnerabilities are used by attackers who exploits them to convey multiple attack, including enticing the users to open harmful and malicious media or to visit website which has a lot of viruses. These can have a lot of consequences. In the worst case, a hacker or attacker can get full access to the computer. Fortunately, windows provide a lot of solution to these vulnerabilities. The user just has to install the appropriate Microsoft patches or they are sometimes installed automatically with the help of Windows Update. Window Update Vulnerabilities can be compared to holes. They are like holes in the system. Windows periodically releases security patches mostly as Window Updates to fix those defects. There exists different level of security known as the â€Å"security level system† in Windows which describes the different levels of security holes: A critical security hole is â€Å"a vulnerability whose exploitation could allow the propagation of an Internet worm without user action.† An important hole is â€Å" A vulnerability whoses exploitation could result in compromise of the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of user’s data, or of the integrity or availability of processing recources.†

Glaciation in Ohio and impacts of glaciation in Ohio Essay

Glaciation in Ohio and impacts of glaciation in Ohio - Essay Example The most important impact of glaciation is the materials that have been left behind by the sheets of ice. These materials includes particles of clay, sand, gravel and rock debris. Most of the materials that had been deposited both above and under the surface of water as a result of glaciation has resulted in formation of geographical features called eskers and kames (Peacefull, 1996). The numerous kames that are found in Portage and Summit counties are a result of deposition of glaciation materials in-between ice sheets that protruded southwards. Comparatively eskers are rare in Ohio although one may encounter eskers in Portage County. Another major impact of glaciation in Ohio is the formation of the glacial lakes. The deposits of these lakes were primarily constituted of fine clay and silt particles. Changes in the drainage pattern of Ohio is also a result of glaciation which disrupted the northwest flow of the River Teays and its tributaries which helped in the formation of Lake Tight in southern

Produce a critical interpretation of the geographies represented in a Dissertation

Produce a critical interpretation of the geographies represented in a selected advertisement, set of advertisements, or advertis - Dissertation Example A critical geography of the advertisements reveal that, underneath the moralistic overtones and admittedly positive social messages, there is insidious propaganda and micro-politicking at work designed to advance specific partisan agendas. Having the moral high ground is of unimaginable importance in politics. Being associated with values has been a major success for the Republican party in America: Democrats can win an advantage in the perceptions of being able to handle domestic and economic issues, but the Republicans are associated with a strong moral compass provided overwhelmingly by traditional Christian values. This itself is an immense propaganda success. First of all, as Gallup has pointed out, in fact Republicans and Democrats are often dead-even in public perceptions of their values, and certainly Republican scandals have not helped the party in securing a consistent values victory: The fact that it is a political bromide that Republicans won the values war shows itself h ow good the Republicans have been in terms of presenting a mystique of a values-based party (2006, p. 526-527). â€Å"For example, the persistent claim that President Bush’s re-election was the result of a â€Å"moral values† revolt by Christians has been seriously overblown. After all, Bush actually received more votes (and a higher percentage of votes) from those who said terrorism was the most important issue than he did from those who identified moral values as the key to their electoral behavior† (Wise, 2005). To be clear, then: The commodity these adverts try to sell is values. They try to get voters and Christian viewers to associate themselves with conservative channels, and they are part of a political campaign. Their analysis in terms of critical geography has to be like political advertisements, which are also carefully controlled to be disagreeable to as few people as possible within the selected geography or micro-geography while energizing the base sufficiently. These adverts play well in heartland Republican America, red states away from the coasts. America as a space, both outdoors and indoors, city and country, is represented as a place of uniform and unchanging values; a Christian nation with a strong bedrock of decency. Second, a fact that we will return to, it is simply not the case that evangelicals or people with religious values vote Republican: White evangelicals do. Black evangelicals and devout Latina/o Catholics, as well as Jews and Catholics in general, far more strongly trend Democratic. â€Å"The racial voting gap was especially pronounced among evangelical Christians. This isparticularly important, given the inane pronouncements about how evangelicals were responsible for Bush’s victory. Fact is, only white evangelicals elevate their provincial moral concerns above classical conceptions of self-interest. Black evangelicals — a sizable group to be sure — voted against Bush by margins of a t least four to one, despite often agreeing with conservatives on certain issues like abortion, gay rights or prayer in schools. But white evangelicals and â€Å"born again Christians† voted 78-21 for Bush, a huge increase from the 62 percent average received by the Republican candidate in the two previous Presidential contests† (Wise, 2005). In fact, the race gap is a far bigger gap in terms of predicting votes in American elections than the geographic, gender, and even class gap! Third: Democrats have

How Jack Bellews Speech Affects the Plot of Nella Larsens Passing

The term "passing" is shorthand for a racial passing which means people of one race passing for another. Nella Larsen's Passing is the story about two light-skinned women, who both have African blood. Clare Kendry is one of them who chooses and succeeds at "passing" and Irene Redfield is one who doesn't. They drive into each other twelve years later in a restaurant and Clare invites Irene to the tea party. The tea party which appears in the beginning of the story plays an important role throughout of the story because Jack Bellew enters the story at that moment. Jack is the white man who has a strong revulsion to African-Americans. He marries Clare, without knowing her secret ancestry. Jack's statements at the tea party lead the main characters' transformation throughout the story and shape the ending as well. Jack's disgust in colored people and assertion of his hate toward Negroes impact Clare Kendry, his wife, to re-estimate her value of life. When Clare and Irene run into each other at the restaurant, Clare is confident of her `passing' and is even sorry to those who didn't do the same thing. Passing to the white society is "even worth the price" to Clare (160). She believes that wealth is everybody's final desire and by passing she achieves that in a "frightfully easy" way (158). However she doubts her confidence on her passed life since the tea party in her house. At the tea party, Jack says words which humiliates African-Americans and shows how he hates Negroes (171-172). Against his statements, Irene exposes that Jack is "surrounded by three black devils" (172). It is significant that Irene includes Clare as one of the "black devils." This implies that Irene classifies Clare as a part of the black community even... ...at Jack didn't show up frequently during the story but his words which had spoken at the tea party remain and continuously affect Irene and Clare. After the tea party Clare finds her happiness is no longer coming from being an upper class and having wealth but she confirms that she belongs to the black society and is happy to mingle with them. Also Irene who always concerning safety and put it up as the most important thing in her life turns out to thinking about others beside security; those are considering herself and relationship with husband . Clare's death, the ending of the story, was already foreseen at the tea party by Jack and followed by his words. Without doubt Jack Bellew was the character who opens up the story and also, finishes up the story. Work cited Nella, Larsen. Quicksand and Passing. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University press, 2002

Mesopotamia Cultures Contribution to the Western Civilization

Western civilization traces its origin from the cultures of the ancient Near East. This is where the people of Egypt and Mesopotamia developed some organized communities and institutions which can be associated with civilization. The Romans and Greeks played a big role in the development of the Western civilization, the two societies borrowed heavily from the people who lived in the Near East. They were influenced and nurtured by the Mesopotamia societies who lived in this area of the Near East. The Romans and the Greeks served as the transmitters of the culture from the Near East to the other parts of Europe. Dowling,M 2007) The Mesopotamia and Egypt started to build cities at around 3000 BC. They developing writing as a method through which they were to keep records. The same cultures build monumental structures for their gods and as a way to preserve their cultures. (Kramwel, S 1969 45)The cultures had a political ,social ,military and a religious system which dealt with the basic problems that human being experienced . Human civilization is thought to have began in this area where two society are credited with the ancient civilization. Western civilization is based on the first sophisticated cultures which were found in Mesopotamia. It had so many elements of the culture from the Mesopotamia region, this proves the fact that Mesopotamia cultures contributed greatly towards the Western civilization. Mesopotamia was the first society to have a full system of social order. It had a government, cities and a culture that characterized what is found in western societies save for the little modifications and influences from the other cultures from different parts of the world. Many architectural structures in the Western societies have their origin from the cultures that existed in this region between rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The first people to occupy this area were the Sumerians. These people displayed all the characteristics of an advancing civilization. They had cities such as Ur; Eridu and Uruk. The cities were governed by a system which was theocratic in nature. The government controlled the economic activities that took place here. Therefore the semblance of the government appeared in this culture for the first time, it developed over time to be what it is today. The Western societies government systems were a modification of the structures that existed during the Mesopotamia civilization. It was the function of the government to ensure that there was order in the society. In this culture the government was charged with the role of ensuring that people followed the laid down laws. In the western civilization we had the forces which were structured in the same manner as the law and order maintenance forces. (Feverstein, G 2001 134) In the Mesopotamia society there was a set of hierarchy which consisted of the nobles, common people and slaves, each class of the people had a role to play with the nobles as the rulers of the society and occupiers of the highest class in the whole societies. The kingdoms in the western civilization were designed in the same manners where we had the kings and queens together with their families and close relatives making the royal family, there were the commoners and at the bottom of the ladder there were the slaves who were mainly the servants for the royal families and other rich families. As the war broke out in the Mesopotamia region, the Akkadians took over where they introduced and developed the city states and a complete law system. The city states had a government of their own and laws that were made by the council of selected people who represented the rest of the society. The Western societies later emerged with a complete system where we had states or empires which were mostly ruled by the kings and queens, these empires were structured in the same way as the city states that were common in the Mesopotamia region. The rules and laws that were made by the king and his council borrowed heavily from the cultures in the Mesopotamia. The Roman Empire is one of the best examples that had structures resembling the government systems that existed in Mesopotamia. This later spread out the other regions in Europe where several city states were formed in the same systems that were found in the Roman empire which had great influence from the cultures from the near East. (Feverstein, G 2001 154) Mesopotamia cultures did not just leave a government system ,they left other characteristics which were picked by other societies and later spread far and wide where their influence is still felt up to this time. The Sumerians people are believed to be the first people to have conceived the art of writing. This art is believed to have been discovered as a result of a need that emerged in this society. When people started to produce crops, there was surplus which they sold to those who did not have. There was a need of keeping proper records for the produce from the farms. This led to the discovery of a form of writing which helped in the further improvement of agriculture. The scribes formed a very important part of the society in this ancient civilization. The kept records and helped in drafting documents for the government, they were respected people in the society as they helped preserve the culture of the Mesopotamia people. The writing systems spread to other parts of the world going through modifications in the Western Europe region to produce what we have today. Mesopotamia cultures are credited with contributing such an important elements to different cultures around the world. Though there were other forms of writings in the different parts of the world especially in China, this near east ancient civilization is believed to have played a part in the introduction of form writing and keeping of records which was common in western civilization. Calendar represents time; it has been used in different parts of the world to plan for the various activities. People use calendars to plan the activities undertaken in a given time. They plan to plant in a given period of the year, harvest their crops when the time comes, hold festivals in a given time and offer sacrifices to their gods in an appointed time. The calendar gives the specific dates when these activities should be taken. This important record was discovered in the Near East region by the Mesopotamia people. It spread to the other parts of the world through the Romans and Greek civilization. In the Western civilization, the calendar formed an integral part of the lives as it was used to date various periods of the history. Using the records which were developed in the Mesopotamia regions, the western societies were able to document events that took place in different parts of the world at a given part. Stein, R ,1976 25) Another discovery by the Mesopotamia people that transformed the western societies is the wheel. The agriculture societies of the Near East mostly used water from the river to grow their crops. The irrigation system which had solved the food shortage problem in the western societies had its origin in Mesopotamia. Use of irrigation was made possible through the invention of a wheel where it was used to propel a structure which drew water from the rivers. Through this method the farmers in Mesopotamia were able to get water for consumption as well as for the cultivation purposes. The invention of the wheel played an important role in advancement of agriculture in this area. They were able to cultivate different crops which required water throughout the year using the new discovery; this partly solved the food shortages in this area. Through making the simple machines the people in the Mesopotamia civilization were able to utilize the water in the two rivers to their benefit. They did not rely heavily on the rains. They were able to produce crops all year around using simple machines which were propelled by the wheel. This discovery was embraced by the other cultures especially the Romans and the Greeks who later modified it to form carts which were had wheels as the propelling gadget. The cart and wheel were used as a means of transport in the ancient Roman civilization. The Western civilization played a role in the further modification of this invention later giving rise to the cars and bicycles which were developed during the industrial revolution in Western Europe. Mesopotamia cultures are credited for the invention and development of the wheel, a gadget that transformed the lives of people as the modification of this discovery in the western civilization gave rise to the means of movement that are found in the present world. Through their simple discovery, Mesopotamia people helped in changing the transport industry through bringing efficient means which people can use to make their work easier. The Mesopotamia cultures began to use metal tools making a big step towards technology. The use of these tools was embraced by the other cultures that developed them gradually to produce the tools we have presently. The Western societies are credited with the modification of these discoveries which had their initial origin from the Near East region. (Stein, R ,1976 103) The Mesopotamia people are closely related with introduction of mathematics, geometry and astronomy some of the most important aspects of the Western civilization. The field of science was embraced by the western societies moving it to the next level where several discoveries were made by the Western scientist in the course of time. These discoveries came to change the course of the world history. The core of the western civilization truly rests with the Mesopotamia cultures which shaped the course of the world history. The western societies have benefited from the countless aspects from this ancient civilization from the Near East. Right from the government system, society order, architectural structures, and technology this society would not be what it is today were it not from the contribution from the Mesopotamia cultures through the assimilation process of the Greek and Romans civilizations. Mesopotamia Cultures Contribution to the Western Civilization

John Locke s Social Contract Theory Essay - 2234 Words

1 John locke’s social contract theory Mohd Furkan M.A.(politics: international and area study) AIS, JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA NEW DELHI INTRODUCTION The mutual agreement that pave the way for a person enters into a civil society is called social contact. The theory of social contract belongs in an especial manner to the political philosopher of the seventeenth and eighteenth century. But it did not originate with them. It had its roots in the popular consciousness of the mediaeval society . Historically the consciousness of the natural right and natural law came about around the sixteenth century and it is in this context, the social contract theory prospered. The first prominent theorist talk about the social contract was indeed Thomas Hobbes. In Hobbes’s state of nature, each individual was independent and free, had a right to fend himself and pursue his own good and self-interest. From the writing of Hobbes, synopsis of this idea is that the state of nature is state of war of all against all. Therefore the individuals form government and become part of society to escape this condition. However Locke paints a completely different picture of the state of nature. The purpose of this term paper is to analyze some salient features of John Locke’s social contract theory and some latent ideas and theories that endorse it. IDEAS THAT ENDORSE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY HUMAN UNDERSTANDING In order to understand the Locke’s human nature. We have to go throughShow MoreRelatedThomas Hobbes And John Locke s Theory Of Social Contract Theory1449 Words   |  6 PagesIn this essay, I argue contemporary social contract theory extends itself beyond politics and into philosophy, religion, and literature. I begin by defining social contract theory and explaining the different perspectives of English philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. From there, I will introduce Dostoyevsky’s work, Grand Inquisitor, and conduct an analysis of the relationships between the Grand Inquisitor and his subjects as well as Jesus and his followers. Using textual evidence and uncontroversialRead MoreThe Work Of John Locke1395 Words   |  6 Pagespeople s in the form of a government. The government is, therefore, portrayed, in this case, as an external power belonging to the people, by the people and for the people. These contrasting theories have generated heated arguments on wh ich of them is analytically correct. This paper provides an analysis of the work of John Locke with regard to explaining why individuals submit themselves to external power to form a society. Also, the paper provides defensive evidence explaining why Locke s work isRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke1346 Words   |  6 PagesSocial Contracts Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were two English political philosophers, who have had a lasting impact on modern political science. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke both spent much of their lives attempting to identify the best form of government. Locke and Hobbes were among the most prominent of theorists when it came to social contract and human rights. A Social Contract is an agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, areRead MoreEssay On John Locke And Thomas Hobbes1076 Words   |  5 Pages John Locke and Thomas Hobbes John Locke and Thomas Hobbes, two English Enlightenment philosophers, were both very influential politically and philosophically despite having almost opposite beliefs. While each individually influenced later documents and events such as the Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution, they had an equally big impact in history. Today, everyone recognizes natural rights and the modern system of government uses social contracts every day. Thomas HobbesRead MoreThe Function of a Social Contract1676 Words   |  7 PagesFunction of a Social Contract? Philosophers have been concerned with the theories of a social contract for thousands of years. Plato mentions the concept in Crito and in Republic. These theories have stemmed from the concept of justice and for our society to be just. I will look at the works of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and finally with John Rawls after which a overall view into the function of a social contract can be derived as well as any problems with the theory(s). The basicRead MoreEssay on What is the Function of a Social Contract?1637 Words   |  7 PagesFunction of a Social Contract? Philosophers have been concerned with the theories of a social contract for thousands of years. Plato mentions the concept in Crito and in Republic. These theories have stemmed from the concept of justice and for our society to be just. I will look at the works of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and finally with John Rawls after which a overall view into the function of a social contract can be derived as well as any problems with the theory(s). TheRead MoreThe Social Contract Theories Of Thomas Hobbes And John Locke1210 Words   |  5 PagesMahogany Mills Professor: Dr. Arnold Political Philosophy 4 February 2015 Compare and contrast the social contract theories of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke In the beginning of time, there was no government to regulate man. This caused a burden on society and these hardships had to be conquered, which is when a social contract was developed. The social contract theory is a model that addresses the questions of the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over an individualRead MoreSocial Contract Theory On The Origin Of State1110 Words   |  5 PagesSOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY Introduction: The social contract theory is one of the oldest theories on the origin of state. This theory came into existence as a reaction against the divine origin theory. The term ‘social’ is something which is connected with the society, while ‘contract’ means an agreement between two or more people. Thus a term of political theory, ‘social contract’ implies an agreement that makes society possible .this theory holds that the state is the voluntary and deliberate agreementRead MoreJohn Locke And Thomas Hobbes1287 Words   |  6 Pageshumankind and their rights. John Locke and Thomas Hobbes were both political philosophers who developed theories about how the government should work. They set up their theories around The Natural Law and the Social Contract Theory. Although John Locke and Thomas Hobbes had a similar goal, their beliefs and opinions were definitely not the same. John Locke and Thomas Hobbes both believed in the Natural Law and the Social Contract Theory. They both developed and worked their theories and philosophies aroundRead MoreThe American Constitution And The Bill Of Rights1463 Words   |  6 Pagesand thoughts of the philosophes, specifically John Locke. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were both English philosophers,influential thinkers of the seventeenth century, both had confidence in a Social Contract and they both distributed books that were generally perused. Thomas Hobbes talked about and built up the social contract hypothesis through his book Leviathan. The social contract hypothesis was later bolstered and translated encourage by John Locke. This hypothesis which was essential to the

The Invention of American Agriculture in Tehuacan Valley

The Tehuacà ¡n Valley, or more precisely the Tehuacà ¡n-Cuicatlà ¡n valley, is located in southeastern Puebla state and northwestern Oaxaca state in central Mexico. It is the southernmost arid area of Mexico, its aridity caused by the rain shadow of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range. Annual mean temperature averages 21 degrees C (70 F) and rainfall 400 millimeters (16 inches). In the 1960s, the Tehuacà ¡n Valley was the focus of a large-scale survey called the Tehuacà ¡n Project, led by American archaeologist Richard S. MacNeish. MacNeish and his team were looking for the Late Archaic origins of maize. The valley was selected because of its climate and its high level of biological diversity (more on that later). MacNeishs large, multi-discipline project identified nearly 500 cave and open-air sites, including the 10,000-year-long, occupied San Marcos, Purron, and Coxcatlà ¡n caves. Extensive excavations in the valleys caves, particularly Coxcatlà ¡n Cave, led to the discovery of the earliest appearance at the time of several important American plant domesticates: not just maize, but bottle gourd, squash, and beans. Excavations recovered over 100,000 plant remains, as well as other artifacts. Coxcatlà ¡n Cave Coxcatlà ¡n Cave is a rock shelter that was occupied by humans for nearly 10,000 years. Identified by MacNeish during his survey in the 1960s, the cave includes an area of about 240 square meters (2,600 square feet) beneath a rock overhang about 30 meters (100 feet) long by 8 m (26 ft) deep. Large-scale excavations conducted by MacNeish and colleagues included about 150 sqm (1600 sq ft) of that horizontal range and vertically down to the bedrock of the cave, some 2-3 m (6.5-10 ft) or more to bedrock. Excavations at the site identified at least 42 discrete occupation levels, within that 2-3 m of sediment. Features identified at the site include hearths, cache pits, ash scatters, and organic deposits. The documented occupations varied considerably in terms of size, seasonal duration, and number and variety of artifacts and activity areas. Most importantly, the earliest dates on domesticated forms of squash, beans and maize were identified within Coxcatlà ¡ns cultural levels. And the process of domestication was in evidence as well—especially in terms of maize cobs, which are documented here as growing larger and with an increased number of rows over time. Dating Coxcatlà ¡n Comparative analysis grouped the 42 occupations into 28 habitation zones and seven cultural phases. Unfortunately, conventional radiocarbon dates on organic materials (like carbon and wood) within the cultural phases were not consistent within the phases or zones. That was likely the result of vertical displacement by human activities such pit-digging, or by rodent or insect disturbance called bioturbation. Bioturbation is a common issue in cave deposits and indeed many archaeological sites. However, the recognized mixing led to an extensive controversy during the 1970s and 1980s, with several scholars raising doubts about the validity of the dates for the first maize, squash, and beans. By the late 1980s, AMS radiocarbon methodologies which allow for smaller samples were available and the plant remains themselves—seeds, cobs, and rinds--could be dated. The following table lists the calibrated dates for the earliest direct-dated examples recovered from Coxcatlà ¡n cave. Cucurbita argyrosperma (cushaw gourd) 115 cal BCPhaseolus vulgaris (common bean) cal 380 BCZea mays (maize) 3540 cal BCLagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd) 5250 BCCucurbita pepo (pumpkins, zucchini) 5960 BC A DNA study (Janzen and Hubbard 2016) of a cob from Tehuacan dated to 5310 cal BP found that the cob was genetically closer to modern maize than to its wild progenitor teosinte, suggesting that maize domestication was well underway before Coxcatlan was occupied. Tehuacà ¡n-Cuicatlà ¡n Valley Ethnobotany One of the reasons MacNeish selected the Tehuacà ¡n valley is because of its level of biological diversity: a high diversity is a common characteristic of places where first domestications are documented. In the 21st century, the Tehuacà ¡n-Cuicatlà ¡n valley has been the focus of extensive ethnobotanical studies—ethnobotanists are interested in how people use and manage plants. These studies reveal the valley has the highest biological diversity of all the arid zones in North America, as well as one of the richest areas in Mexico for ethnobiological knowledge. One study (Davila and colleagues 2002) recorded over 2,700 species of flowering plants within an area of approximately 10,000 square kilometers (3,800 square miles). The valley also has a high human cultural diversity, with Nahua, Popoloca, Mazatec, Chinantec, Ixcatec, Cuicatec, and Mixtec groups together accounting for 30% of the total population. Local people have amassed an immense amount of traditional knowledge including the names, uses, and ecological information on nearly 1,600 plant species. They also practice a variety of agricultural and silviculture techniques including the care, management, and preservation of nearly 120 native plant species. In Situ and Ex Situ Plant Management The ethnobotanists studies documented local practices in habitats where the plants naturally occur, called in situ management techniques: Tolerance, where useful wild plants are left standingEnhancement, activities that increase the plant population density and availability of useful plant speciesProtection, actions which favor permanence of particular plants through care Ex situ management practiced in Tehuacan involves seed sowing, planting of vegetative propagules and transplanting of entire plants from their natural habitats into managed areas such as agricultural systems or home-gardens. Sources Blancas J, Casas A, Lira R, and Caballero J. 2009. Traditional Management and Morphological Patterns of Myrtillocactus schenckii (Cactaceae) in the Tehuacà ¡n Valley, Central Mexico. Economic Botany 63(4):375-387.Blancas J, Casas A, Rangel-Landa S, Moreno-Calles A, Torres I, Pà ©rez-Negrà ³n E, Solà ­s L, Delgado-Lemus A, Parra F, Arellanes Y et al. 2010. Plant Management in the Tehuacà ¡n-Cuicatlà ¡n Valley, Mexico. Economic Botany 64(4):287-302.Dà ¡vila P, Arizmendi MDC, Valiente-Banuet A, Villaseà ±or JL, Casas A, and Lira R. 2002. Biological diversity in the Tehuacà ¡n-Cuicatlà ¡n Valley, Mexico. Biodiversity Conservation 11(3):421-442.Farnsworth P, Brady JE, DeNiro MJ, and MacNeish RS. 1985. A re-evaluation of the isotopic and archaeological reconstructions of diet in the Tehuacan Valley. American Antiquity 50(1):102-116.Flannery KV, and MacNeish RS. 1997. In defense of the Tehuacà ¡n project. Current Anthropology 38(4):660-672.Fritz GJ. 1994. Are the first American farmers getting younger? Current Anthropology 35(1):305-309.Gumerman GJ, and Neely JA. 1972. An Archaeological Survey of the Tehuacan Valley, Mexico: A Test of Color Infrared Photography. American Antiquity 37(4):520-527.Janzen GM, and Hufford MB. 2016. Crop Domestication: A Sneak-Peek into the Midpoint of Maize Evolution. Current Biology 26(23):R1240-R1242.Long A, Benz BF, Donahue DJ, Jull AJT, and Toolin LJ. 1989. First Direct AMS Dates on Early Maize From Tehuacan, Mexico. Radiocarbon 31(3):1035-1040.Long A, and Fritz GJ. 2001. Validity of AMS dates on maize from the Tehuacà ¡n Valley: A comment on MacNeish and Eubanks. Latin American Antiquity 12(1):87-90.MacNeish RS, and Eubanks MW. 2000. Comparative analysis of the Rio Balsas and Tehuacà ¡n models for the origin of maize. Latin American Antiquity 11(1):3-20.Smith BD. 2005. Reassessing Coxcatlà ¡n Cave and the early history of domesticated plants in Mesoamerica. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102(27):9438-94 45.